A Landscape of Fear: Behavioural Responses in Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) to Risk Effects posed by Wolves (Canis lupus) and Human Hunters in a European Primeval Forest
In Białowieża primeval forest (BPF) wolves Canis lupus supress red deer Cervus elaphus foraging via behaviourally-mediated, non-consumptive effects. Humans provide an additional risk factor differentially exhibited between areas devoid of human intervention and areas with high human hunting and foresting activity. The aim of the study was to test the behavioural responses of red deer to risk effec
